1 Introduction

Tea (Camellia sinensis) is the world's most consumed non-alcoholic beverage, deeply rooted in several cultures and part of daily routine. Its consumption spans continents, with strong popularity in Asia, Europe, and America. The numerous types of tea—green, black, oolong, and white-are varied based on manufacturing processes, but they all possess an impressive portfolio of bioactive compounds. These compounds, including polyphenols like catechins, have been noted for their potential health benefits. Tea drinking on a daily basis has been associated with reduced susceptibility to chronic conditions such as cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and certain cancers (Oliveira et al., 2017).

Chronic inflammatory diseases are now leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Disorders such as cardiovascular conditions, diabetes, obesity, and neurodegenerative diseases are increasing and are largely linked to chronic low-grade inflammation. Diabetes, for instance, has a prevalence of approximately 463 million individuals worldwide, and the estimate indicates over 700 million individuals by the year 2045. The diseases pose significant public health issues, which necessitate urgent prevention and control measures (Patel et al., 2023).

The high levels of polyphenolic compounds, amino acids, and other bioactive molecules present in tea render it a promising natural agent to combat inflammation. The anti-inflammatory activity of tea, particularly of green tea, has been supported by research that demonstrates its rich concentration of catechins like epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG). These molecules have been found to modulate inflammatory processes, suppress oxidative stress, and influence immune response, and their possible therapeutic uses in controlling inflammation-related disorders (Tan et al., 2022).

The study provides an overview of the anti-inflammatory activity of tea, highlighting the bioactive molecules responsible for the activity and the mechanisms at the molecular level. The effectiveness of tea in regulating inflammation is appraised by discussing current experimental and clinical studies. It also discusses the future application of tea products in therapeutic and preventive medicine, including considerations of bioavailability, safety, and dosage. By consolidating current research, this study illuminates tea's prospects in inflammation management and directs further research along these lines.

2 Major Anti-inflammatory Active Compounds in Tea

2.1 Tea polyphenols

Catechins, and especially epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), are the primary polyphenols of green tea. EGCG is reported to suppress the gene and protein expression of inflammatory cytokines and inflammation-related enzymes, for instance, TNF-α, IL-6, and COX-2, thereby reducing inflammation. Anti-inflammatory activity of green tea is primarily because of these catechins, which act through suppression of central inflammatory pathways (Preeja et al., 2021; Varshini et al., 2023).

2.2 Theaflavins, thearubigins, and other polyphenol derivatives

Theaflavins and thearubigins are black tea fermented polyphenol derivatives. They have been identified to possess anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting pro-inflammatory mediators and enzymes. Synergistic interaction via blending teas, such as peppermint with white tea, also enhances these effects by leading to increased inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines and pathways involved (Xia et al., 2020; Malongane et al., 2022).

2.3 Theanine and amino acid compounds

L-theanine, a unique amino acid found in tea, has been found to possess anti-inflammatory effects, particularly when combined with other bioactive molecules. For example, L-theanine-chlorogenic acid blend has shown a more pronounced anti-inflammatory effect than either of the molecules by itself, reflecting synergism (Varshini et al., 2023).

2.4 Caffeine and its synergistic effects

Caffeine, a well-known tea stimulant, can also be involved in anti-inflammatory activities, especially in combination with polyphenols and other tea constituents. While its anti-inflammatory action against inflammation is less potent than that of catechins, caffeine is capable of modulating and defining inflammatory responses, in addition to enhancing the activity of other bioactive substances (Varshini et al., 2023).

2.5 Other potential anti-inflammatory molecules in tea

Tea also contains polysaccharides and volatile oils, which have been reported to be involved in anti-inflammatory action. The polysaccharides can inhibit inflammatory mediators, while volatile oils can endow with both anti-inflammatory as well as antioxidant activity. The total combined anti-inflammatory effect of tea is hence a result of the combined action of these diverse compounds (Kartika et al., 2022; Malongane et al., 2022).

3 Molecular Mechanisms of the Anti-inflammatory Effects of Tea

3.1 Regulation of oxidative stress and ROS levels

Tea polyphenols, such as catechins, are effective antioxidants, reducing intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cell-protective against oxidative damage. For example, Jing-Si tea reduced the levels of ROS dramatically and protected synoviocytes from oxidative stress by H₂O₂-induced, inhibiting inflammation and apoptosis of cells (Kao et al., 2024). Green tea polyphenols also reduce lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress, which are responsible for their anti-inflammatory activity (Rhee et al., 2018).

3.2 Inhibition of inflammatory signaling pathways

Tea and its compounds suppress major inflammatory signaling cascades. White tea and peppermint suppress phosphorylation of IκB-α and MAPK, leading to downregulation of NF-κB and MAPK pathways, central to the transcription of inflammatory genes (Ni et al., 2024). Jing Si Herbal Tea has been shown to decrease nuclear NF-κB and phosphorylated ERK/JNK in macrophages, as well as suppressing inflammatory signaling (Wei et al., 2024).

3.3 Modulation of cytokine expression

Tea extracts down-regulate the production of the key pro-inflammatory cytokines, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, and enzymes COX-2 and iNOS. Suppression was observed in both in vitro and in vivo models, and the formulated combination of tea had enhanced inhibition of these cytokines (Figure 1) (Rhee et al., 2018; Dehzad et al., 2025).

Figure 1 The tea extract downregulated the expression of a variety of key pro-inflammatory cytokines (Adopted from Dehzad et al., 2025)

3.4 Influence on immune cell functions

Tea modulates immune cell polarization and function. Jing Si Herbal Tea, for example, changes macrophage polarization from the pro-inflammatory M1 to anti-inflammatory M2 phenotype, which inhibits inflammatory reactions in LPS-induced models (Wei et al., 2024). This immunomodulation is critical for controlling overactive inflammation.

3.5 Gut microbiota modulation and anti-inflammatory effects

While there is little direct evidence in the provided papers, tea polyphenols are said to influence gut microbiota composition that secondarily modulates systemic inflammation. It is a topic that is still under research, and recent findings support that consumption of tea, modulation of microbiota, and reduced inflammatory markers are interrelated (Rhee et al., 2018).

4 Advances in Experimental and Clinical Studies on the Anti-inflammatory Effects of Tea

4.1 In vitro studies: molecular and cellular inflammation models

Various in vitro studies have shown that green and black tea extracts inhibit protein denaturation and downregulate inflammatory markers in cell culture. Green tea and black tea extracts, for example, inhibited protein (albumin) denaturation concentration dependently with higher efficacy being shown by green tea, which presumably is due to the fact that it is rich in more flavonoids (Chatterjee et al., 2012). Other studies using RAW264.7 macrophage cells revealed that tea extracts suppress the secretion of nitric oxide (NO) and inhibit inflammatory enzyme key players, validating their cellular level anti-inflammatory activity (Figure 2) (Oliveira et al., 2017; Wei et al., 2024). Other pairings, such as with white tea and peppermint, were found to have synergistic effect on reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines and inhibiting NF-κB and MAPK pathways (Xia et al., 2020).

Figure 2 Tea extract alleviated LPS-induced inflammation in RAW 264.7 cells by modulating macrophage polarization (Adopted from Wei et al., 2024)

4.2 Animal studies: Validation in acute and chronic inflammation models

Anti-inflammatory activity of tea has been verified in animal studies in vivo. For instance, decoction of green tea significantly inhibited inflammation in rats with acute models of inflammation, and its activities were as good as standard anti-inflammatory drugs like indomethacin (Chattopadhyay et al., 2012). Preparations of herbal teas, such as Shangqingyin, have also exhibited reduced formation of granuloma and edema in rodent models, showing activity in both acute and chronic inflammation (Tu et al., 2017). The combination of white tea and peppermint also facilitated additional anti-inflammatory outcomes in animal models (Li, 2024).

4.3 Human intervention studies and clinical trial outcomes

Direct evidence from human clinical trials is limited. Reviews and preclinical studies suggest that green tea and herbal tea dietary consumption can influence pro-inflammatory cytokine activity and reduce disease risk associated with inflammation, but large-scale, well-defined human intervention trials are needed to confirm these effects and establish clinical relevance (Mejia et al., 2013).

4.4 Strengths and limitations of current scientific evidence

Research strengths now include reproducible in vitro and animal data for anti-inflammatory tea activities, identification of active compounds, and mechanisms. Weaknesses include the lack of stringent human clinical trials, heterogeneity of tea preparations and dosing, and lack of long-term safety data. More standardized and controlled human studies are required to advance from preclinical to clinical guidelines (Zhou et al., 2024).

5 Application Prospects of Tea’s Anti-inflammatory Properties: A Research Insight

5.1 Development of functional tea beverages and nutraceuticals

Anti-inflammatory activity of tea has also resulted in the development of functional foods and beverages as well as nutraceuticals. Compositions that include green tea with other herbs, such as Acacia nilotica or mint, have been found to contain enhanced anti-inflammatory activity, which makes them suitable as potent functional drinks to ensure well-being and prevent illness (Preeja et al., 2021; Singh et al., 2023; Varshini et al., 2023). The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of various teas (e.g., red, blue, black) also warrant their applications in beverages for health promotion (Chen et al., 2017; Patel et al., 2023).

5.2 Application of tea bioactives in medicinal food products

Polyphenols and other bioactives of tea are increasingly incorporated into medicinal food products for the management of inflammation-related disorders. Anti-inflammatory potential of herbal teas containing phenolics has been reported to reduce inflammatory markers and can be utilized as preventive or adjuvant dietary treatments for chronic inflammatory diseases (Oliveira et al., 2017; Sattar, 2020; Taran et al., 2020). Tea extracts are utilized in food products owing to their safety profile and broad spectrum of bioactivity.

5.3 Potential value of tea-derived anti-inflammatory compounds in skin health and cosmetics

Tea extracts, most notably green tea, have also demonstrated anti-inflammatory activity in skin models, including the inhibition of UVB-induced cytokine production in keratinocytes (Keet et al., 2017). These findings herald promising applications for tea-derived products in skincare and cosmetic products for inflammation, redness, and oxidative stress.

5.4 Synergistic anti-inflammatory effects with other natural products or pharmaceuticals

Blending tea with other herbal ingredients, e.g., babul or peppermint, can create synergistic anti-inflammatory effects greater than the sum of the parts (Varshini et al., 2023). Blends like these may enhance efficacy in functional foods, supplements, or as add-on treatments to pharmaceuticals, creating new possibilities for integrative health interventions.

6 Challenges in Tea Anti-inflammatory Research

6.1 Complexity of active compounds and variability in effects

Tea contains a multicomponent collection of bioactive compounds—e.g., polyphenols, flavonoids, and other phytochemicals-whose composition and concentrations individually can vary extensively among the varieties and even batches of tea. This variability makes it difficult to identify individual compounds with the desired anti-inflammatory activity and standardize tea preparations for scientific or clinical use. For example, the anti-inflammatory activity of teas is highly related to their phytochemical profile and, indeed, the same teas can have different effects depending on their phenolic profile and the presence of specific aglycones or glycosides (Oliveira et al., 2017). Some teas can even have double mechanisms, inducing or inhibiting inflammation according to context and concentration (Chen et al., 2017).

6.2 Influence of different processing methods on compounds and efficacy

Processing methods—such as fermentation, drying, and blending-radically alter the chemical composition of tea, affecting both the character and amount of active constituents. For instance, green, black, oolong, and white teas each have varying phytochemical profiles due to differences in processing that also influence their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity (Liu et al., 2018). Mixing teas or infusions with other plants can enhance or, in some cases, diminish effectiveness, making it even more difficult to evaluate their health values (Xia et al., 2020; Malongane et al., 2022).

6.3 Insufficient clinical evidence and inter-individual variability

While in vitro and animal models consistently demonstrate anti-inflammatory activity, they are few and weak in human clinical trials. Preclinical data dominate, and transfer to human disease outcomes is uncertain. Responses to tea consumption may also be determined by genetic, metabolic, and lifestyle factors, and thus are not readily generalizable or to recommend single interventions (Chen et al., 2017; Malongane et al., 2022).

6.4 Uncertainties regarding dosage, safety, and long-term intervention effects

Doses for anti-inflammatory effects are not well established, and the safety of long-term high-dose tea or tea extract consumption is not well established. It is noted in some reports that certain teas or their combinations may have cytotoxic effects at higher concentrations, and the long-term effect of chronic consumption—especially in supplement or concentrated forms—should be assessed (Malongane et al., 2022). Further studies are also warranted on potential interactions with medications and other dietary components.

7 Integration and Comparison of Multi-dimensional Evidence on Tea’s Anti-inflammatory Effects

7.1 Consistency and divergence across different research findings

Animal and in vitro studies continually show green, black, and half-fermented teas to exhibit strong anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties as a result of the rich polyphenol content and effectiveness in inhibiting inflammatory mediators and oxidative stress (Lee et al., 2021; Deo et al., 2023). Human clinical trials and meta-analyses, nonetheless, have less compelling or inconsistent results. For example, a recent meta-analysis of 38 randomized controlled trials found that green tea supplementation enhanced markers of oxidative stress and reduced IL-1β but did not have a significant effect on other inflammatory markers such as CRP, IL-6, or TNF-α (Dehzad et al., 2025). Population studies also uncover weak or inconsistent evidence for an association between tea consumption and reduced inflammation (Hamer, 2007).

7.2 Cross-disciplinary mechanisms and systemic integration

The anti-inflammatory effects of tea are transduced through multiple mechanisms, including antioxidant action, inhibition of NF-κB and MAPK pathways, and cytokine production modulation (Deo et al., 2023). These mechanisms have evidence from biochemistry, immunology, and nutritional sciences and demonstrate tea's systemic action against oxidative stress, immune cell signaling, and inflammatory gene expression (Luo et al., 2024).

7.3 Translational value from experimental studies to clinical applications

While preclinical information provides strong mechanistic rationale, the translation into clinical benefit is restricted. Human research suggests that improvements in oxidative stress are not always parallel to reductions in systemic inflammation, and clinical significance for minimal alterations in markers like IL-1β remains uncertain (Dehzad et al., 2025). More robust, longer duration, and more highly controlled clinical trials are necessary to determine the therapeutic benefit of tea in inflammatory disease (Zhao et al., 2018; Deo et al., 2023).

7.4 Public health and industrial significance

Despite these limitations, the acceptability and safety profile of tea render it a suitable candidate for public health intervention against chronic inflammation. The food and nutraceutical industries are employing these findings to develop functional beverages and supplements, although claims should be tempered by the current evidence base (Lee et al., 2021; Deo et al., 2023).

8 Concluding Remarks

Tea (Camellia sinensis) contains bioactive constituents with diversity, i.e., catechins, theaflavins, thearubigins, theanine, caffeine, polysaccharides, and volatile oils, which have synergistic anti-inflammatory effects. Current evidence suggests that these constituents influence oxidative stress, inhibit critical inflammatory signaling pathways (e.g., NF-κB, MAPK, NLRP3), influence pro-inflammatory cytokine expression (e.g., TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6), influence the immune cells' functions, and interact with the intestinal microbiota to induce systemic anti-inflammatory effects. Evidence from in vitro, animal, and human studies show reproducibility and replicability of these effects across a range of experimental paradigms.

In addition to its biochemical effect, tea is a natural, extremely ubiquitous diet ingredient with translational value in functional foods, nutraceuticals, and cosmetics. Through multi-targeting mechanisms, it can interact synergistically with other diet or therapeutic interventions to facilitate preventive as well as adjunctive strategies for inflammatory disorders. The intersection of technological developments, such as improved extraction technique and formulation design, increases the translational value of tea-derived anti-inflammatory compounds.

Future research will need to establish bioavailability, optimal dose, long-term safety, and effects on populations. Contrast between different types of tea and manufacturing processes can further establish activity profiles. In an industrial sense, tea's anti-inflammatory properties provide opportunities for developing health-oriented products based on science. This body of knowledge designates tea as having a dual role of being a functional food constituent and a lead product for a series of health-enhancing products.

Acknowledgments

The authors sincerely thank the members of the research team for their active contributions and thoughtful support in the collection of relevant data and literature sorting during the tea tree breeding research, and their hard work has provided a solid foundation for the completion of this paper.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

References

Chatterjee P., Chandra S., Dey P., and Bhattacharya S., 2012, Evaluation of anti-inflammatory effects of green tea and black tea: A comparative in vitro study, Journal of Advanced Pharmaceutical Technology & Research, 3(2): 136-138.

https://doi.org/10.4103/2231-4040.97298

Chattopadhyay C., Chakrabarti N., Chatterjee M., Chatterjee S., Bhattacharyay D., and Ghosh D., 2012, Evaluation of acute anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of green tea decoction on experimental animal models, International Journal of Nutrition, Pharmacology, Neurological Diseases, 2(1): 20-25.

https://doi.org/10.4103/2231-0738.93128

Chen X., Kitts D., and Z., 2017, Demonstrating the relationship between the phytochemical profile of different teas with relative antioxidant and anti-inflammatory capacities, Functional Foods in Health and Disease, 7(6): 375-395.

https://doi.org/10.31989/FFHD.V7I6.342

Dehzad M., Ghalandari H., Nouri M., Makhtoomi M., and Askarpour M., 2025, Effects of green tea supplementation on antioxidant status and inflammatory markers in adults: a grade-assessed systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials, Journal of Nutritional Science, 14: e13.

https://doi.org/10.1017/jns.2025.13

Deo A., Devi P., Sijisha K., Anusha R., Mishra T., Mathew S., Abraham K., Jagadish R., and Priya S., 2023, Comparative studies on the antioxidant, anticancer and anti-inflammatory activities of green tea, orthodox black tea and CTC black tea, Journal of Food Science and Technology, 61(7): 1315-1325.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-023-05900-2

Hamer M., 2007, The beneficial effects of tea on immune function and inflammation: a review of evidence from in vitro, animal, and human research, Nutrition Research, 27(7): 373-379.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nutres.2007.05.008

Kao S., Chang Y., Lin F., Huang T., Chen T., Lin S., Lin K., Kuo W., Ho T., and Huang C., 2024, Jing-si herbal tea suppresses H₂O₂-instigated inflammation and apoptosis by inhibiting bax and mitochondrial cytochrome C release in HIG-82 Synoviocytes, Environmental Toxicology, 39(7): 1390-1401.

https://doi.org/10.1002/tox.24406

Kartika I., Sinarsih N., and Nayaka N., 2022, Anti-inflammatory activities of Peperomia pellucida [L.] Kunth.: a review, Journal of Pharmaceutical Science and Application, 4(1): 44-52.

https://doi.org/10.24843/jpsa.2022.v04.i01.p06

Keet L., Riedel S., Swart A., Joubert E., and Gelderblom W., 2017, Abstract B23: The anticancer properties of South African herbal teas utilizing an in vitro pre-exposure anti-inflammatory UVB/keratinocyte model, Cancer Research, 77(23): 23.

https://doi.org/10.1158/1538-7445.NEWFRONT17-B23

Lee Y., Moon G., Chung K., Lee K., Shim D., Kim J., and An J., 2021, Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of semi-fermented tea, Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition, 50(9): 927-935.

https://doi.org/10.3746/jkfn.2021.50.9.927

Li J.Q., 2024, From QTLs to field: mapping the genetic determinants of rice grain quality, Plant Gene and Trait, 15(2): 85-96.

https://doi.org/10.5376/pgt.2024.15.0010

Liu L., Liu Q., Li P., and Liu E., 2018, Discovery of synergistic anti-inflammatory compound combination from herbal formula GuGe FengTong Tablet, Chinese Journal of Natural Medicines, 16(9): 683-692.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S1875-5364(18)30108-0

Luo W., Zhang H., Zhang H., Xu Y., Liu X., Xu S., and Wang P., 2024, Reposition: focalizing β-alanine metabolism and the anti-inflammatory effects of its metabolite based on multi-omics datasets, International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 25(19): 10252.

https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms251910252

Malongane F., Mcgaw L., Olaokun O., and Mudau F., 2022, Anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti-oxidant and cytotoxicity assays of South African herbal teas and bush tea blends, Foods, 11(15): 2233.

https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11152233

Mejia E., Puangpraphant S., and Eckhoff R., 2013, Tea and inflammation, in: tea in health and disease prevention, Academic Press, pp. 563-579.

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384937-3.00047-1

Ni Naing N.N.Z., Wang C.L., Zhang C., Li J.J., Li J., Zhu Q., Chen L.J., and Lee D.S., 2024, Genetic basis of rice grain shape and palatability: a genome-wide study review, Plant Gene and Trait, 15(5): 230-242.

https://doi.org/10.5376/pgt.2024.15.0023

Oliveira A., Sá I., Pereira D., Gonçalves R., Andrade P., and Valentão P., 2017, Exploratory studies on the in vitro anti-inflammatory potential of two herbal teas (Annona muricata L. and Jasminum grandiflorum L.), and relation with their phenolic composition, Chemistry & Biodiversity, 14(5): e1700002.

https://doi.org/10.1002/cbdv.201700002

Patel S., Dey R., Verma K., Deshbhratar R., Maru K., Sharma P., Limaye R., and Puri P., 2023, Comparative analysis of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of red, blue, and black tea for health benefits, Brazilian Journal of Science, 2(4): 299.

https://doi.org/10.14295/bjs.v2i4.299

Preeja R., Arivarasu L., Kumar R., and Thangavelu L., 2021, Anti-inflammatory activity of herbal formulation prepared using mint and green tea, Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International, 33(63): 35644.

https://doi.org/10.9734/jpri/2021/v33i63b35644

Rhee Y., Rhee C., Chung P., and Ahn J., 2018, Anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of rice bran and green tea fermentation mixture on lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages, Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, 16(12): 2943-2951.

https://doi.org/10.4314/tjpr.v16i12.19

Sattar T., 2020, Would some herbal teas play a medicating role for certain diseases?, Current Nutrition & Food Science, 16(1): 1-34.

https://doi.org/10.2174/1573401316666200514224433

Singh S., Patel Y., Patel S., Ajay M., and Chauhan V., 2023, Formulation, evaluation, and antimicrobial study of immune-boosting herbal tea, Pharmaspire, 15(1): 121.

https://doi.org/10.56933/pharmaspire.2023.15121

Tan R., Lai J., and Loke W., 2022, Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of Prunella vulgaris tea, Current Research in Nutrition and Food Science Journal, 10(2): 290-298.

https://doi.org/10.12944/crnfsj.10.2.9

Taran K., Abderrahim A., Kravchenko V., Novosel O., and Taran S., 2020, Herbal tea for the treatment of urinary diseases as potent diuretic and anti-inflammatory agent, Asian Journal of Research in Chemistry, 13(3): 175-179.

https://doi.org/10.5958/0974-4150.2020.00034.6

Tu L., Zhu S., Zhong Y., He Z., Chen Y., Li X., Li Y., and He R., 2017, Anti-inflammatory effects of a Chinese herbal tea, Shangqingyin, in mice and rats, Integrative Food, Nutrition and Metabolism, 4(1): 1-6.

https://doi.org/10.15761/IFNM.1000174

Varshini A., Cecil A., and Kumar S., 2023, Preparation of Camellia sinensis (green tea) and Acacia nilotica (Babul) herbal formulation and its anti-inflammatory activity, Pharmacognosy Research, 15(2): 119-124.

https://doi.org/10.5530/pres.15.2.027

Wei M., Huang K., Kang H., Liu G., Kuo C., Tzeng I., Hsieh P., and Lan C., 2024, Jing Si herbal tea modulates macrophage polarization and inflammatory signaling in LPS-induced inflammation, International Journal of Medical Sciences, 21(11): 3046-3057.

https://doi.org/10.7150/ijms.100720

Xia X., Lin Z., Shao K., Wang X., Xu J., Zhai H., Wang H., Xu W., and Zhao Y., 2020, Combination of white tea and peppermint demonstrated synergistic anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory activities, Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 100(14): 5039-5048.

https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.10876

Zhao S., Liu Z., Wang M., He D., Liu L., Shu Y., Song Z., Li H., Liu Y., and Lu A., 2018, Anti-inflammatory effects of Zhishi and Zhiqiao revealed by network pharmacology integrated with molecular mechanism and metabolomics studies, Phytomedicine, 50: 61-72.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2018.09.184

Zhou Y., Liang J., Wang C., and Ye R., 2024, Therapeutic synergies in traditional Chinese herbal teas: An integrative review of Lonicerae japonicae flos and complementary constituents, International Journal of Frontiers in Medicine, 6(4): 109-118.

https://doi.org/10.25236/ijfm.2024.060411